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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other liquid is heated. The fluid does not boil. (In North America, the word "furnace" is generally used if the reason is not to boil the liquid.) The warmed or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various procedures or heating system applications,[1][2] including drinking water heating, central heating, boiler-based power era, food preparation, and sanitation.

Materials
The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually manufactured from steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought iron. Stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not found in wetted elements of boilers credited to corrosion and stress corrosion breaking.[3] However, ferritic stainless is often used in superheater sections that won't be exposed to boiling drinking water, and electrically heated stainless steel shell boilers are allowed under the Western european "Pressure Equipment Directive" for production of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors.[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler
In live steam models, copper or brass is often used since it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for vapor locomotives), because of its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in newer times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and cheaper substitutes (such as metal) are used instead.

For a lot of the Victorian "age group of vapor", the only material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron, with set up by rivetting. This iron was often from specialist ironworks, such as at Cleator Moor (UK), mentioned for the high quality of their rolled plate and its own suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure boilers. In the 20th century, design practice transferred towards the utilization of steel instead, which is more powerful and cheaper, with welded building, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode considerably slower than their modern-day steel counterparts, and are less vunerable to localized pitting and stress-corrosion. This makes the durability of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers.

Cast iron might be used for the heating vessel of local water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers" in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce warm water, not steam, and they also run at low pressure and try to avoid boiling. The brittleness of cast iron helps it be impractical for high-pressure vapor boilers.
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Energy
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of some of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or gas. Electric vapor boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam also, either straight (BWR) or, in most cases, in specialised warmth exchangers called "vapor generators" (PWR). Temperature recovery vapor generators (HRSGs) use heat rejected from other procedures such as gas turbine.

Boiler efficiency
there are two solutions to measure the boiler efficiency 1) direct method 2) indirect method

Direct method -immediate method of boiler efficiency test is more functional or more common

boiler efficiency =Q*((Hg-Hf)/q)*(GCV *100 ) Q =Total vapor movement Hg= Enthalpy of saturated steam in k cal/kg Hf =Enthalpy of give food to drinking water in kcal/kg q= level of gas use in kg/hr GCV =gross calorific value in kcal/kg like family pet coke (8200 kcal/KG)

indirect method -to measure the boiler efficiency in indirect method, we need a following parameter like

Ultimate analysis of gasoline (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint, ash constraint)
percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas
flue gas temperature at outlet
ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg
GCV of energy in kcal/kg
ash percentage in combustible fuel
GCV of ash in kcal/kg
Configurations
Boilers can be classified into the following configurations:

Container boiler or Haycock boiler/Haystack boiler: a primitive "kettle" where a open fire heats a partially filled water container from below. 18th century Haycock boilers produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure vapor generally, often barely above that of the atmosphere. These could burn wood or frequently, coal. Efficiency was suprisingly low.
Flued boiler with one or two large flues-an early forerunner or type of fire-tube boiler.

Diagram of a fire-tube boiler
Fire-tube boiler: Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume still left above to support the vapor (steam space). This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives. The heat source is in the furnace or firebox that needs to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to keep the heat of the heating surface below the boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of the fire-tube which lengthens the road of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which may be further increased by making the gases invert direction through a second parallel pipe or a lot of money of multiple pipes (two-pass or return flue boiler); on the other hand the gases may be studied along the edges and then under the boiler through flues (3-move boiler). In case of a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel expands from the firebox and the hot gases go through a bundle of fire pipes inside the barrel which greatly increases the heating surface in comparison to a single pipe and further enhances heat transfer. Fire-tube boilers have a comparatively low rate of vapor production usually, but high steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mainly burn off solid fuels, but are readily adaptable to those of the gas or liquid variety.

Diagram of a water-tube boiler.
Water-tube boiler: In this kind, pipes filled with drinking water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations. Often the water tubes connect large drums, the low ones containing water and the top ones water and steam; in other instances, like a mono-tube boiler, drinking water is circulated by a pump through a succession of coils. This kind gives high vapor production rates generally, but less storage capacity than the above mentioned. Water tube boilers can be made to exploit any high temperature source and are generally preferred in high-pressure applications since the high-pressure water/steam is contained within small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
Flash boiler: A flash boiler is a specialized kind of water-tube boiler where tubes are close together and water is pumped through them. A flash boiler differs from the type of mono-tube vapor generator in which the tube is permanently filled up with water. Super fast boiler, the pipe is kept so hot that water give food to is quickly flashed into vapor and superheated. Flash boilers experienced some use in automobiles in the 19th century which use continued into the early 20th century. .

1950s design vapor locomotive boiler, from a Victorian Railways J class
Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been combined in the following manner: the firebox contains an set up of water tubes, called thermic siphons. The gases then go through a conventional firetube boiler. Water-tube fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives,[citation needed] but have met with little success in other countries.
Sectional boiler. In a solid iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" water is contained inside solid iron sections.[citation needed] These areas are assembled on site to make the finished boiler.
Safety
See also: Boiler explosion
To define and secure boilers safely, some professional specialized organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Technical engineers (ASME) develop criteria and regulation codes. For instance, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is a standard providing a wide range of guidelines and directives to ensure compliance of the boilers and other pressure vessels with security, security and design standards.[5]

Historically, boilers were a way to obtain many serious injuries and property destruction due to poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle metallic shells can rupture, while welded or riveted seams could start badly, leading to a violent eruption of the pressurized steam. When drinking water is changed into steam it expands to over 1,000 times its original quantity and travels down steam pipes at over 100 kilometres per hour. Because of this, vapor is a great way of moving energy and warmth around a niche site from a central boiler house to where it is needed, but without the right boiler give food to water treatment, a steam-raising flower are affected from scale corrosion and formation. At best, this increases energy costs and can result in poor quality vapor, reduced efficiency, shorter plant life and unreliable procedure. At worst, it can result in catastrophic failing and loss of life. Collapsed or dislodged boiler pipes can also spray scalding-hot vapor and smoke out of the air intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen who insert the coal in to the open fire chamber. Extremely large boilers providing hundreds of horsepower to use factories could demolish entire buildings.[6]

A boiler that has a loss of give food to water and is permitted to boil dry out can be hugely dangerous. If supply water is then sent into the unfilled boiler, the small cascade of incoming drinking water instantly boils on contact with the superheated metal shell and leads to a violent explosion that cannot be managed even by security vapor valves. Draining of the boiler can also happen if a leak occurs in the steam source lines that is larger than the make-up drinking water source could replace. The Hartford Loop was created in 1919 by the Hartford Vapor Boiler and INSURANCE PROVIDER as a strategy to assist in preventing this condition from occurring, and thus reduce their insurance promises.[7][8]

Superheated steam boiler

A superheated boiler on the steam locomotive.
Main article: Superheater
Most boilers produce steam to be utilized at saturation temperatures; that is, saturated steam. Superheated steam boilers vaporize the water and further heat up the steam in a superheater then. This provides vapor at higher temp, but can reduce the overall thermal efficiency of the steam generating vegetable because the higher vapor temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust heat.[citation needed] There are many ways to circumvent this problem, typically by giving an economizer that heats the feed water, a combustion air heating unit in the hot flue gas exhaust route, or both. There are benefits to superheated steam that may, and will often, increase overall efficiency of both steam generation and its own utilization: increases in input heat range to a turbine should outweigh any cost in additional boiler problem and expense. There could be practical restrictions in using wet vapor also, as entrained condensation droplets will harm turbine blades.

Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if any system component fails and allows steam to flee, the temperature and pressure can cause serious, instantaneous harm to anyone in its path. Since the escaping steam will at first be completely superheated vapor, detection can be difficult, although the extreme heat and sound from such a leak indicates its presence clearly.

Superheater procedure is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although for a different purpose. The vapor piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. The heat range in this field is typically between 1,300 and 1,600 °C (2,372 and 2,912 °F). Some superheaters are glowing type; that is, they absorb high temperature by rays. Others are convection type, absorbing temperature from a fluid. Some are a combination of both types. Through either method, the extreme heat in the flue gas path will heat the superheater steam piping and the steam within also. While the heat range of the vapor in the superheater rises, the pressure of the vapor will not and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler.[9] Virtually all steam superheater system designs remove droplets entrained in the steam to avoid harm to the turbine blading and associated piping.

Supercritical steam generator

Boiler for a charged power place.
Main article: Supercritical steam generator
Supercritical steam generators are frequently used for the production of electric power. They operate at supercritical pressure. In contrast to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical vapor generator operates at such a high pressure (over 3,200 psi or 22 MPa) that the physical turbulence that characterizes boiling ceases to occur; the fluid is neither liquid nor gas but a super-critical fluid. There is no era of steam bubbles within water, because the pressure is above the critical pressure point at which steam bubbles can develop. As the liquid expands through the turbine phases, its thermodynamic condition drops below the critical point as it can work turning the turbine which converts the power generator from which power is eventually extracted. The fluid at that time may be considered a mixture of vapor and liquid droplets as it goes by in to the condenser. This leads to somewhat less energy use and therefore less greenhouse gas production. The term "boiler" shouldn't be used for a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" occurs in this device.
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Accessories
Boiler fittings and accessories
Pressuretrols to control the steam pressure in the boiler. Boilers generally have two or three 3 pressuretrols: a manual-reset pressuretrol, which functions as a security by setting top of the limit of vapor pressure, the working pressuretrol, which settings when the boiler fires to keep up pressure, as well as for boilers outfitted with a modulating burner, a modulating pressuretrol which settings the quantity of fire.
Security valve: It can be used to relieve pressure and stop possible explosion of the boiler.
Water level indications: They show the operator the amount of liquid in the boiler, known as a view glass also, water measure or water column.
Bottom blowdown valves: They provide a way for removing solid particulates that condense and lay on underneath of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is usually located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened up to use the pressure in the boiler to force these particulates out.
Continuous blowdown valve: This enables a small level of water to escape continuously. Its purpose is to avoid water in the boiler becoming saturated with dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause drinking water droplets to be transported over with the vapor - a condition known as priming. Blowdown is also often used to monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.
Trycock: a kind of valve that is often use to manually check a water level in a tank. Most entirely on a water boiler commonly.
Flash tank: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash' safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere as the ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.
Automatic blowdown/continuous heat recovery system: This system allows the boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is moving to the boiler, thereby transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the make-up water. No flash tank is generally needed as the blowdown discharged is near to the heat range of the make-up water.
Hand openings: They may be steel plates installed in openings in "header" to permit for inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of inner surfaces.
Steam drum internals, a series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
Low-water cutoff: It really is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that can be used to turn off the burner or shut down energy to the boiler to avoid it from jogging once the drinking water goes below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burnt without drinking water in it) it can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.
Surface blowdown range: It provides a way for removing foam or other light-weight non-condensible chemicals that tend to float together with the water inside the boiler.
Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back again to the boiler after they have expelled some of its heat.
Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feedwater line. This can be fitted to the relative aspect of the boiler, below water level just, or to the top of the boiler.[10]
Top feed: With this design for feedwater injection, the water is fed to the very best of the boiler. This may reduce boiler exhaustion caused by thermal stress. By spraying the feedwater over a series of trays water is quickly warmed and this can reduce limescale.
Desuperheater pipes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of pipes in water drum or the vapor drum designed to cool superheated vapor, in order to supply auxiliary equipment that will not need, or may be damaged by, dry vapor.
Chemical injection line: A link with add chemicals for controlling feedwater pH.
Steam accessories
Main vapor stop valve:
Steam traps:
Main vapor stop/check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
Gas oil system:fuel oil heaters
Gas system:
Coal system:
Soot blower
Other essential items
Pressure gauges:
Feed pumps:
Fusible plug:
Inspectors test pressure measure attachment:
Name plate:
Registration plate:

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